Skip main navigation
Close Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Research & Reviews

Can Charisma Be Taught? Tests of Two Interventions

    Published Online:10 Feb 2012https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2010.0012

    Abstract

    We tested whether we could teach individuals to behave more charismatically, and whether changes in charisma affected leader outcomes. In Study 1, a mixed-design field experiment, we randomly assigned 34 middle-level managers to a control or an experimental group. Three months later, we reassessed the managers using their coworker ratings (Time 1 raters = 343; Time 2 raters = 321). In Study 2, a within-subjects laboratory experiment, we videotaped 41 MBA participants giving a speech. We then taught them how to behave more charismatically, and they redelivered the speech 6 weeks later. Independent assessors (n = 135) rated the speeches. Results from the studies indicated that the training had significant effects on ratings of leader charisma (mean D = .62) and that charisma had significant effects on ratings of leader prototypicality and emergence.

    REFERENCES

    • ABC News. 2010. Local candidate gets red in the face. Available: http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/video/politician-phil-davison-freaks-out-during-speech-11600742. [Accessed on 5/21/2011]. Google Scholar
    • Aditya R. N. 2004. Leadership. In Hersen M. (Ed.), Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment, vol. 4: 216–239. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Google Scholar
    • Aiken L. R. 1987. Formulas for equating ratings on different scales. Educational Psychological Measurement, 47: 51–54. Google Scholar
    • Altenbernd L. , Lewis L. L. 1980. Introduction to literature, stories (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan. Google Scholar
    • Antonakis J. 2012. Transformational and charismatic leadership. In Day D. V.Antonakis J. (Eds.), The nature of leadership, 2nd ed.: 256–288. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Google Scholar
    • Antonakis J. , Atwater L. 2002. Leader distance: A review and a proposed theory. The Leadership Quarterly, 13: 673–704. Google Scholar
    • Antonakis J. , Avolio B. J. , Sivasubramaniam N. 2003. Context and leadership: An examination of the nine-factor full-range leadership theory using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. The Leadership Quarterly, 14: 261–295. Google Scholar
    • Antonakis J. , Bendahan S. , Jacquart P. , Lalive R. 2010. On making causal claims: A review and recommendations. The Leadership Quarterly, 21: 1086–1120. Google Scholar
    • Antonakis J. , Dalgas O. 2009. Predicting elections: Child's play! Science, 323: 1183. Google Scholar
    • Antonakis J. , House R. J. 2002. An analysis of the full-range leadership theory: The way forward. In Avolio B. J.Yammarino F. J. (Eds.), Transformational and charismatic leadership: The road ahead: 3–34. Amsterdam: JAI Press. Google Scholar
    • Antonioni D. 1994. The effects of feedback accountability on upward appraisal ratings. Personnel Psychology, 47: 349–356. Google Scholar
    • Aristotle 1954. Rhetoric (, Roberts W. R. , Bywater I. , Solmsen F., Trans.) (1st Modern Library ed.). New York: Modern Library. Google Scholar
    • Atkinson J. M. 2004. Lend me your ears: All you need to know about making speeches and presentations. London: Vermilion. Google Scholar
    • Atwater L. E. , Yammarino F. J. 1992. Does self-other agreement on leadership perceptions moderate the validity of leadership and performance predictions? Personnel Psychology, 45: 141–164. Google Scholar
    • Atwater L. , Roush P. , Fischthal A. 1995. The influence of upward feedback on self- and follower ratings and leadership. Personnel Psychology, 48: 35–59. Google Scholar
    • Avolio B. J. , Reichard R. J. , Hannah S. T. , Walumbwa F. O. , Chan A. 2009. A meta-analytic review of leadership impact research: Experimental and quasi-experimental studies. The Leadership Quarterly, 20: 764–784. Google Scholar
    • Awamleh R. , Gardner W. L. 1999. Perceptions of leader charisma and effectiveness: The effects of vision content, delivery, and organizational performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 10: 345–373. Google Scholar
    • Baltagi B. H. 2002. Econometrics. New York: Springer. Google Scholar
    • Bandura A. 1977. Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Google Scholar
    • Barling J. , Weber T. , Kelloway E. K. 1996. Effects of transformational leadership training on attitudinal and financial outcomes: A field experiment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81: 827–832. Google Scholar
    • Bass B. M. 1985. Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press. Google Scholar
    • Bass B. M. , Avolio B. J. 1995. MLQ Multifactor leadership questionnaire for research: Permission set. Redwood City, CA: Mindgarden. Google Scholar
    • Bass B. M. , Avolio B. J. 1997. Full range leadership development: Manual for the multifactor leadership questionnaire. Redwood City, CA: Mindgarden. Google Scholar
    • Bernard L. C. , Walsh R. P. , Mills M. 2005. Ask once, may tell: Comparative validity of single and multiple item measurement of the big-five personality factors. Counseling and Clinical Psychology Journal, 2: 40–57. Google Scholar
    • Beyer J. M. 1999. Taming and promoting charisma to change organisations. The Leadership Quarterly, 10: 307–330. Google Scholar
    • Bliese P. D. 2000. Within-group agreement, non-independence, and reliability: Implications for aggregation and analysis. In Kozlowski S. W. J.Klein K. J. (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations: 349–381. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar
    • Bollen K. A. , Kirby J. B. , Curran P. J. , Paxton P. M. , Chen F. N. 2007. Latent variable models under misspecification—Two-stage least squares (2SLS) and maximum likelihood (ML) estimators. Sociological Methods and Research, 36: 48–86. Google Scholar
    • Bono J. E. , Ilies R. 2006. Charisma, positive emotions and mood contagion. The Leadership Quarterly, 17: 317–334. Google Scholar
    • Bouchard T. J. , Loehlin J. C. 2001. Genes, evolution, and personality. Behavior Genetics, 31: 243–273. Google Scholar
    • Bouchard T. J. , McGue M. 2003. Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences. Journal of Neurobiology, 54: 4–45. Google Scholar
    • Bower G. H. 1976. Experiments on story understanding and recall. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 28: 511–534. Google Scholar
    • Brodbeck F. C. , Frese M. , Akerblom S. , Audia G. , Bakacsi G. , Bendova H. , Bodega D. , Bodur M. , Booth S. , Brenk K. , Castel P. , Den Hartog D. , Donnelly-Cox G. 2000. Cultural variation, of Leadership Prototypes across 22 European Countries. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73: 1–73. Google Scholar
    • Bryman A. 1993. Charismatic leadership in business organizations: Some neglected issues. The Leadership Quarterly, 4: 289–304. Google Scholar
    • Butler A. C. , Chapman J. E. , Forman E. M. , Beck A. T. 2006. The empirical status of cognitive-behavioral therapy: A review of meta-analyses. Clinical Psychology Review, 26: 17–31. Google Scholar
    • Carver C. S. , Scheier M. F. 1990. Origins and Functions of Positive and Negative Affect: A Control-Process View. Psychological Review, 97: 19–35. Google Scholar
    • CBS. 2010. Phil Davison, Local GOP Candidate in Ohio, Gives Screeching Stump Speech. Available: http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-20015989-503544.html [Accessed on 5/21/2011]. Google Scholar
    • Charlier S. D. , Brown K. G. , Rynes S. L. 2011. Teaching evidence-based management in MBA programs: What evidence is there? Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10: 22219–236. Google Scholar
    • Charteris-Black J. 2005. Politicians and rhetoric: the persuasive power of metaphor. Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan. Google Scholar
    • Chen G. , Kirkman B. L. , Kanfer R. 2007. A multilevel study of leadership, empowerment, and performance in teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92: 331–346. Google Scholar
    • Cohen J. 1988. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Google Scholar
    • Conger J. A.Kanungo R. N. (Eds.) 1988. Charismatic leadership: The elusive factor in organizational effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar
    • Conger J. A. , Kanungo R. N. 1998. Charismatic leadership in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Google Scholar
    • Cronshaw S. F. , Lord R. G. 1987. Effects of categorization, attribution, and encoding processes on leadership perceptions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72: 97–106. Google Scholar
    • Daily Mail. 2010. 'I have a masters degree in communication': Republican candidate's bizarre speech becomes internet hit. Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/worldnews/article-1310777/Phil-Davison-speech-YouTube-hit-I-degree-communications.html [Accessed on 5/21/2011]. Google Scholar
    • Day D. V. 2000. Leadership development: A review in context. Leadership Quarterly, 11(4): 581–613. Google Scholar
    • DeGroot T. , Kiker D. S. , Cross T. C. 2001. A meta-analysis to review organizational outcomes related charismatic leadership. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 17: 356–371. Google Scholar
    • Den Hartog D. N. , House R. J. , Hanges P. J. , Ruiz-Quintanilla S. A. 1999. Culture specific and cross-culturally generalizable implicit leadership theories: Are attributes of charismatic/transformational leadership universally endorsed? The Leadership Quarterly, 10: 219–256. Google Scholar
    • Den Hartog D. N. , Verburg R. M. 1997. Charisma and rhetoric: Communicative techniques of international business leaders. The Leadership Quarterly, 8: 355–391. Google Scholar
    • Downton J. V. 1973. Rebel leadership: Commitment and charisma in the revolutionary process. New York: Free Press. Google Scholar
    • Dumdum U. R. , Lowe K. B. , Avolio B. J. 2002. A meta-analysis of transformational and transactional leadership correlates of effectiveness and satisfaction: An update and extension. In Avolio B. J.Yammarino F. J. (Eds.), Transformational and charismatic leadership: The road ahead: 35–66. Amsterdam: JAI. Google Scholar
    • Dvir T. , Eden D. , Avolio B. J. , Shamir B. 2002. Impact of transformational leadership on follower development and performance: A field experiment. Academy of Management Journal, 45: 735–744.Link , Google Scholar
    • Eden D. 1988. Pygmalion, Goal Setting, and Expectancy: Compatible Ways to Boost Productivity. Academy of Management Review, 13: 639–652.Abstract , Google Scholar
    • Eden D. , Geller D. , Gewirtz D. , Gordon-Terner R. , Inbar I. , Liberman M. , Pass Y. , Salomon-Segev I. , Shalit M. 2000. Implanting Pygmalion Leadership Style through Workshop Training: Seven Field Experiments. The Leadership Quarterly, 11: 171–210. Google Scholar
    • Emrich C. G. , Brower H. H. , Feldman J. M. , Garland H. 2001. Images in words: Presidential rhetoric, charisma, and greatness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46: 527–557. Google Scholar
    • Ender P. B. , Chen X. 2008. Powerreg STATA ADO file. UCLA: Academic Technology Services, Statistical Consulting Group. Google Scholar
    • Etzioni A. 1961. A comparative analysis of complex organizations. New York: Free Press. Google Scholar
    • Etzioni A. 1964. Modern organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Google Scholar
    • Fair R. C. 2009. Presidential and Congressional Vote-Share Equations. American Journal of Political Science, 53: 55–72. Google Scholar
    • Flynn F. J. , Staw B. M. 2004. Lend me your wallets: The effect of charismatic leadership on external support for an organization. Strategic Management Journal, 25: 309–330. Google Scholar
    • Foster E. M. , McLanahan S. 1996. An illustration of the use of instrumental variables: Do neighborhood conditions affect a young person's change of finishing high school? Psychological Methods, 1: 249–260. Google Scholar
    • French J. R. P. , Raven B. H. 1968. The bases of social power. In Cartwright D.Zander A. F. (Eds.), Group dynamics: Research and theory (3rd ed.): 259–269. New York: Harper & Row. Google Scholar
    • Frese M. , Beimel S. , Schoenborn S. 2003. Action training for charismatic leadership: Two evaluations of studies of a commercial training module on inspirational communication of a vision. Personnel Psychology, 56: 671–697. Google Scholar
    • Gasper J. M. 1992. Transformational leadership: an integrative review of the literature. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Kalamazoo, MI: Western Michigan University. Google Scholar
    • Gemmill G. , Oakley J. 1992. Leadership: An Alienating Social Myth? Human Relations, 45: 113–129. Google Scholar
    • Gennetian L. A. , Magnuson K. , Morris P. A. 2008. From statistical associations to causation: What developmentalists can learn from instrumental variables techniques coupled with experimental data. Developmental Psychology, 44: 381–394. Google Scholar
    • Gilovich T. , Savitsky K. , Medvec V. H. 1998. The illusion of transparency: Biased assessments of others' ability to read one's emotional states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75: 332–346. Google Scholar
    • Hogg M. A. 2001. A social Identity theory of Leadership. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5: 184–200. Google Scholar
    • House R. J. 1977. A 1976 Theory of charismatic leadership. In Hunt J. G.Larson L. L. (Eds.), The cutting edge. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. Google Scholar
    • House R. J. 1999. Weber and the neo-charismatic leadership paradigm: A response to Beyer. The Leadership Quarterly, 10: 563–574. Google Scholar
    • House R. J. , Hanges P. J. , Javidan M. , Dorfman P. W. , Gupta V. 2004. Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Google Scholar
    • House R. J. , Spangler W. D. , Woycke J. 1991. Personality and charisma and the U.S. presidency: A psychological theory of leader effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36: 364–396. Google Scholar
    • Howell J. M. , Frost P. J. 1989. A laboratory study of charismatic leadership. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 43: 243–269. Google Scholar
    • Jacquart P. , Antonakis J. 2010. It's the economy stupid,” but charisma matters too: A dual-process model of presidential election outcomes. Academy of Management, Organizational Behavior Division: Montréal, Canada. Google Scholar
    • Jones B. F. , Olken B. A. 2005. Do leaders matter? National leadership and growth since World War II. The Quarterly Journal of Economics: 835–864. Google Scholar
    • Judge T. A. , Bono J. E. , Ilies R. , Gerhardt M. W. 2002. Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 765–780. Google Scholar
    • Judge T. A. , Colbert A. E. , Ilies R. 2004. Intelligence and leadership: A quantitative review and test of theoretical propositions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89: 542–552. Google Scholar
    • Judge T. A. , Piccolo R. F. 2004. Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89: 755–768. Google Scholar
    • Kark R. , Shamir B. 2002. The dual effect of transformational leadership: Priming relational and collective selves and further effects on followers. In Avolio B. J.Yammarino F. J. (Eds.), Transformational and charismatic leadership: The road ahead: 67–91. Amsterdam: JAI Press. Google Scholar
    • Kennedy P. 2003. A guide to econometrics (5th ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Google Scholar
    • Keppel G. , Wickens T. D. 2004. Design and Analysis: A researcher's handbook. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Google Scholar
    • Keyes C. F. 2002. Weber and Anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 31: 233–255. Google Scholar
    • Kluger A. N. , DeNisi A. 1996. The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119: 254–284. Google Scholar
    • Landis J. R. , Koch G. G. 1977. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33: 159–174. Google Scholar
    • Liden R. C. , Antonakis J. 2009. Considering context in psychological leadership research. Human Relations, 62: 1587–1605. Google Scholar
    • Lin L. I. 1989. A concordance correlation-coefficient to evaluate reproducibility. Biometrics, 45: 255–268. Google Scholar
    • Lindell M. K. , Brandt C. J. 1999. Assessing interrater agreement on the job relevance of a test: A comparison of the CVI, T, rwg(J), and r*WG(J) indexes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84: 640–647. Google Scholar
    • Lindell M. K. , Brandt C. J. 2000. Climate quality and climate consensus as mediators of the relationship between organizational antecedents and outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85: 331–348. Google Scholar
    • Lindell M. K. , Brandt C. J. , Whitney D. J. 1999. A revised index of interrater agreement for multi-item ratings of a single target. Applied Psychological Measurement, 23: 127–135. Google Scholar
    • Lissitz R. W. , Green S. B. 1975. Effect of the number of scale points on reliability: A Monte Carlo approach. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60: 10–13. Google Scholar
    • Locke E. A. , Latham G. P. 2002. Building practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation. The American Psychologist, 57: 705–717. Google Scholar
    • London M. 2002. Leadership development: Paths to self-insight and professional growth. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Google Scholar
    • Lord R. G. , Brown D. J. , Harvey J. L. , Hall R. J. 2001. Contextual Constraints on Prototype Generation and their Multilevel Consequences for Leadership Perceptions. The Leadership Quarterly, 12: 311–338. Google Scholar
    • Lord R. G. , De Vader C. L. , Alliger G. M. 1986. A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits and leadership perceptions: An application of validity generalization procedures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71: 402–410. Google Scholar
    • Lord R. G. , Foti R. J. , De Vader C. L. 1984. A Test of Leadership Categorization Theory: Internal Structure, Information processing, and Leadership Perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34: 343–378. Google Scholar
    • Lowe K. B. , Kroeck K. G. , Sivasubramaniam N. 1996. Effectiveness correlates of transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic review of the MLQ literature. The Leadership Quarterly, 7: 385–425. Google Scholar
    • MacKenzie S. B. 2003. The dangers of poor construct conceptualization. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 31: 323–326. Google Scholar
    • Magin D. , Helmore P. 2001. Peer and teacher assessments of oral presentation skills: How reliable are they? Studies in Higher Education, 26: 287–298. Google Scholar
    • Maxwell S. E. , Cole D. A. , Arvey R. D. , Salas E. 1991. A comparison of methods for increasing power in randomized between-subjects designs. Psychological Bulletin, 110: 328–337. Google Scholar
    • Mio J. S. 1997. Metaphor and politics. Metaphor and Symbol, 12: 113–133. Google Scholar
    • Mio J. S. , Riggio R. E. , Levin S. , Reese R. 2005. Presidential leadership and charisma: The effects of metaphor. The Leadership Quarterly, 16: 287–294. Google Scholar
    • Morhart F. M. , Herzog W. , Tomczak T. 2009. Brand-Specific Leadership: Turning Employees into Brand Champions. Journal of Marketing, 73: 122–142. Google Scholar
    • Mount M. K. , Scullen S. E. 2001. Multisource feedback ratings: What do they really measure? In London M. (Ed.), How people evaluate others in organizations: 155–176. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Google Scholar
    • Muthén B. O. , Shedden K. 1999. Finite mixture modeling with mixture outcomes using the EM algorithm. Biometrics, 55: 463–469. Google Scholar
    • Podsakoff P. M. , MacKenzie S. B. , Lee J.-Y. , Podsakoff N. P. 2003. Common Method Biases in Behavioral Research: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommended Remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89: 879–903. Google Scholar
    • Podsakoff P. M. , MacKenzie S. B. , Podsakoff N. P. , Lee J. Y. 2003. The mismeasure of man(agement) and its implications for leadership research. The Leadership Quarterly, 14: 615–656. Google Scholar
    • Podsakoff P. M. , Organ D. W. 1986. Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12: 531–544. Google Scholar
    • Preston C. C. , Colman A. M. 2000. Optimal number of response categories in rating scales: Reliability, validity, discriminating power, and respondent preferences. Acta Psychologica, 104: 1–15. Google Scholar
    • Ready D. A. , Conger J. A. 2003. Why Leadership-Development Efforts Fail. Sloan Management Review, 44: 83–88. Google Scholar
    • Ree M. J. , Carretta T. R. 2006. The role of measurement error in familiar statistics. Organizational Research Methods, 9: 99–112. Google Scholar
    • Reilly R. R. , Smither J. W. , Vasilopoulos N. L. 1996. A longitudinal study of upward feedback. Personnel Psychology, 49: 599–612. Google Scholar
    • Roodman D. M. 2008. Cmp: Stata module to implement conditional (recursive) mixed process estimator http://ideas.repec.org/c/boc/bocode/s456882.html. Google Scholar
    • Rosenthal R. , Rubin D. B. 1982. A simple, general purpose display of magnitude of experimental effect. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74: 166–169. Google Scholar
    • Rynes S. L. , Colbert A. E. , Brown K. G. 2002. HR professionals' beliefs about effective human resource practices: Correspondence between research and practice. Human Resource Management, 41: 149–174. Google Scholar
    • Sargan J. D. 1958. The Estimation of Economic Relationships Using Instrumental Variables. Econometrica, 26: 393–415. Google Scholar
    • Scullen S. E. , Mount M. K. , Goff M. 2000. Understanding the latent structure of job performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85: 956–970. Google Scholar
    • Shadish W. R. , Cook T. D. , Campbell D. T. 2002. Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Google Scholar
    • Shamir B. 1999. Taming charisma for better understanding and greater usefulness: A response to Beyer. The Leadership Quarterly, 10: 555–562. Google Scholar
    • Shamir B. 1995. Social Distance and Charisma—Theoretical Notes and an Exploratory-Study. The Leadership Quarterly, 6: 19–47. Google Scholar
    • Shamir B. , Arthur M. B. , House R. J. 1994. The rhetoric of charismatic leadership: A theoretical extension, a case study, and implications for research. The Leadership Quarterly, 5: 25–42. Google Scholar
    • Shamir B. , House R. J. , Arthur M. B. 1993. The motivational effects of charismatic leadership: A self-concept based theory. Organization Science, 4: 577–594. Google Scholar
    • Shamir B. , Howell J. M. 1999. Organizational and contextual influences on the emergence and effectiveness of charismatic leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 10: 257–283. Google Scholar
    • Shaver J. M. 2005. Testing for mediating variables in management research: Concerns, implications, and alternative strategies. Journal of Management, 31: 330–353. Google Scholar
    • Shils E. 1965. Charisma, Order, and Status. American Sociological Review, 30: 199–213. Google Scholar
    • Todorov A. , Mandisodza A. N. , Goren A. , Hall C. C. 2005. Inferences of competence from faces predict election outcomes. Science, 308: 1623–1626. Google Scholar
    • Towler A. J. 2003. Effects of charismatic influence training on attitudes, behavior, and performance. Personnel Psychology, 56: 363–381. Google Scholar
    • Wasielewski P. L. 1985. The emotional basis of charisma. Symbolic Interaction, 8: 207–222. Google Scholar
    • Weber M. 1947. The theory of social and economic organization. In , Parsons T. (Trans.) New York: Free Press. Google Scholar
    • Weber M. 1968. Max Weber on charisma and institutional building. In Eisenstadt S. N. (Ed.) Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar
    • Willis J. , Todorov A. 2006. First impressions: Making up your mind after a 100-ms exposure to a face. Psychology Science, 17: 592–598]. Google Scholar
    • Willner A. R. 1984. The spellbinders: Charismatic political leadership. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Google Scholar
    • Wilson V. L. , Putnam R. R. 1982. A meta-analysis of pretest sensitization effects in experimental design. American Educational Research Journal, 19: 249–258]. Google Scholar
    • Wooldridge J. M. 2002. Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Google Scholar
    • Yukl G. A. 1999. An evaluation of conceptual weaknesses in transformational and charismatic leadership theories. The Leadership Quarterly, 10: 285–305. Google Scholar
    • Yukl G. A. 2006. Leadership in organizations (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Google Scholar
    • Zaccaro S. J. , Horn Z. N. J. 2003. Leadership theory and practice: Fostering an effective symbiosis. The Leadership Quarterly, 14: 769–806. Google Scholar